How to Write an Abstract

If you need to write an abstract for an academic or scientific paper, don't panic! Your abstract is simply a short, standalone summary of the work or paper that others can use as an overview.^[1] An abstract describes what you do in your essay, whether it’s a scientific experiment or a literary analysis paper. It will help your reader to understand the paper and it will help people searching for a particular work to find it and decide whether it suits their purposes. Seeing as an abstract is only a summary of the work you've already done, it's easy to accomplish!

EditSteps

EditGetting Your Abstract Started

1. Write your paper first. Even though an abstract goes at the beginning of the work, it acts as a summary of your entire paper. Rather than introducing your topic, it will be an overview of everything you write about in your paper. Save writing your abstract for last, after you have already finished your paper.
   
   • A thesis and an abstract are entirely different things. The thesis in a paper introduces the main idea or question, while an abstract works to review the entirety of the paper, including the methods and results.
   • Even if you think you know what your paper is going to be about, always save the abstract for last. You will be able to give a much more accurate summary if you do just that - summarize what you've already written.
2. Review and understand any requirements for writing your abstract. The paper you’re writing probably has specific guidelines and requirements, whether it’s for publication in a journal, submission in a class, or part of a work project. Before you start writing, refer to the rubric or guidelines you were presented with to identify important issues to keep in mind.
   
   • Is there a maximum or minimum length?
   • Are there style requirements?
   • Are you writing for an instructor or a publication?
3. Consider your audience. Abstracts are written to help readers find your work. For example, in scientific journals, abstracts allow readers to quickly decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests. Abstracts also help your readers get at your main argument quickly. Keep the needs of your readers in mind as you write the abstract.^[2]
   • Will other academics in your field read this abstract?
   • Should it be accessible to a lay reader or somebody from another field?
4. Determine the type of abstract you must write. Although all abstracts accomplish essentially the same goal, there are two primary styles of abstract: descriptive and informative. You may have been assigned a specific style, but if you weren’t, you will have to determine which is right for you. Typically, informative abstracts are used for much longer and technical research while descriptive abstracts are best for shorter papers.^[3]
   
   • Descriptive abstracts explain the purpose, goal, and methods of your research but leave out the results section. These are typically only 100-200 words.
   • Informative abstracts are like a condensed version of your paper, giving an overview of everything in your research including the results. These are much longer than descriptive abstracts, and can be anywhere from a single paragraph to a whole page long.^[4]
   • The basic information included in both styles of abstract are the same, with the main difference being that the results are only included in an informative abstract, and an informative abstract is much longer than a descriptive one.
   • A critical abstract is not often used, but it may be required in some courses. A critical abstract accomplishes the same goals as the other types of abstract, but will also relate the study or work being discussed to the writer’s own research. It may critique the research design or methods.^[5]

EditWriting Your Abstract

1. Identify your purpose. You're writing about a correlation between lack of lunches in schools and poor grades. So what? Why does this matter? The reader wants to know why your research is important, and what the purpose of it is. Start off your descriptive abstract by considering the following questions:^[6]
   
   • Why did you decide to do this study or project?
   • How did you conduct your research?
   • What did you find?
   • Why is this research and your findings important?
   • Why should someone read your entire essay?
2. Explain the problem at hand. Abstracts state the “problem” behind your work. Think of this as the specific issue that your research or project addresses. You can sometimes combine the problem with your motivation, but it is best to be clear and separate the two.^[7]
   
   • What problem is your research trying to better understand or solve?
   • What is the scope of your study - a general problem, or something specific?
   • What is your main claim or argument?
3. Explain your methods. Motivation - check. Problem - check. Methods? Now is the part where you give an overview of how you accomplished your study. If you did your own work, include a description of it here. If you reviewed the work of others, it can be briefly explained.^[8]
   
   • Discuss your own research including the variables and your approach.
   • Describe the evidence you have to support your claim
   • Give an overview of your most important sources.
4. Describe your results (informative abstract only). This is where you begin to differentiate your abstract between a descriptive and an informative abstract. In an informative abstract, you will be asked to provide the results of your study. What is it that you found?^[9]
   
   • What answer did you reach from your research or study?
   • Was your hypothesis or argument supported?
   • What are the general findings?
5. Give your conclusion. This should finish up your summary and give closure to your abstract. In it, address the meaning of your findings as well as the importance of your overall paper. This format of having a conclusion can be used in both descriptive and informative abstracts, but you will only address the following questions in an informative abstract.^[10]
   
   • What are the implications of your work?
   • Are your results general or very specific?^[11]

EditFormatting Your Abstract

1. Keep it in order. There are specific questions your abstract must provide answers for, but the answers must be kept in order as well. Ideally it should mimic the overall format of your essay, with a general ‘introduction, ‘body,’ and ‘conclusion.’
   
   • Many journals have specific style guides for abstracts. If you’ve been given a set of rules or guidelines, follow them to the letter.^[12]
2. Provide helpful information. Unlike a topic paragraph, which may be intentionally vague, an abstract should provide a helpful explanation of your paper and your research. Word your abstract so that the reader knows exactly what you’re talking about, and isn’t left hanging with ambiguous references or phrases.
   
   • Avoid using direct acronyms or abbreviations in the abstract, as these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader. That uses up precious writing room, and should generally be avoided.
   • If your topic is about something well-known enough, you can reference the names of people or places that your paper focuses on.
   • Don’t include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract. These take up too much room and usually aren’t what your readers want from an abstract anyway.^[13]
3. Write it from scratch. Your abstract is a summary, yes, but it should be written completely separate from your paper. Don't copy and paste direct quotes from yourself, and avoid simply paraphrasing your own sentences from elsewhere in your writing. Write your abstract using completely new vocabulary and phrases to keep it interesting and redundancy-free.
   
4. Use key phrases and words. If your abstract is to be published in a journal, you want people to be able to find it easily. In order to do so, readers will search for certain queries on online databases in hopes that papers, like yours, will show up. Try to use 5-10 important words or phrases key to your research in your abstract.^[14]
   
   • For example, if you’re writing a paper on the cultural differences in perceptions of schizophrenia, be sure to use words like “schizophrenia,” “cross-cultural,” “culture-bound,” “mental illness,” and “societal acceptance.” These might be search terms people use when looking for a paper on your subject.
5. Use real information. You want to draw people in with your abstract; it is the hook that will encourage them to continue reading your paper. However, do not reference ideas or studies that you don’t include in your paper in order to do this. Citing material that you don’t use in your work will mislead readers and ultimately lower your viewership.
   
6. Avoid being too specific. An abstract is a summary, and as such should not refer to specific points of your research other than possibly names or locations. You should not need to explain or define any terms in your abstract, a reference is all that is needed. Avoid being too explicit in your summary and stick to a very broad overview of your work.^[15]
   
   • Make sure to avoid jargon. This specialized vocabulary may not be understood by general readers in your area and can cause confusion.^[16]
7. Be sure to do basic revisions. The abstract is a piece of writing that, like any other, should be revised before being completed. Check it over for grammatical and spelling errors and make sure it is formatted properly.
   
8. Get feedback from someone. Having someone else read your abstract is a great way for you to know whether you’ve summarized your research well. Try to find someone who doesn’t know everything about your project. Ask him or her to read your abstract and then tell you what s/he understood from it. This will let you know whether you’ve adequately communicated your key points in a clear manner.^[17]
   • Consulting with your professor, a colleague in your field, or a tutor or writing center consultant can be very helpful. If you have these resources available to you, use them!
   • Asking for assistance can also let you know about any conventions in your field. For example, it is very common to use the passive voice (“experiments were performed”) in the sciences. However, in the humanities active voice is usually preferred.

EditSample Abstracts

Sample Article Abstract

Sample Executive Summary

EditTips

• Abstracts are typically a paragraph or two and should be no more than 10% of the length of the full essay. Look at other abstracts in similar publications for an idea of how yours should go.^[18]
• Consider carefully how technical the paper or the abstract should be. It is often reasonable to assume that your readers have some understanding of your field and the specific language it entails, but anything you can do to make the abstract more easily readable is a good thing.

EditRelated wikiHows

• Summarize a Journal Article
• Read a Scientific Paper
• Create a Family Cookbook
• Write an Appendix
• Write an Autobiography
• Begin an Autobiography

EditSources and Citations

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How to Open a Stuck Window

It can be quite frustrating when you want to open a window and find that the window won’t budge. Windows can get stuck for a number of reasons: wood frames may have warped in wet weather, the house may have settled or someone may have painted the frames shut. With patience and a few handy techniques, most stuck windows can be opened.

EditSteps

EditPrying a Window Open

1. Examine the window. Look at both sides of the window, interior and exterior.
   
   • Make sure it is a window that is meant to be opened. Some new office and home windows are not meant to be opened. If there are no hinges or the window is a single pane with nowhere to slide, it likely does not open.
   • Make sure that the window is not nailed or screwed shut for security or energy conservation reasons.
   • Make sure any locks are disengaged.
   • Look to see if the window frame has been recently painted.
   • Decide which direction the window is supposed to open: up, outward or sideways.
2. Loosen any paint that is sealing the window shut. Removing dried paint that collected between the window and frame will free the window and allow it to be opened.^[1]
   
   • Use a razor knife to cut along the edge of the window and the frame. Cut across all four sides of the window. You may need to check the exterior of the window in addition to the inside to make sure that it isn’t painted shut on both sides.
3. Insert a putty knife between the window and the frame. Wriggle the knife back and forth to loosen any dried paint between the window and the frame. Go around the entire edge of the window to loosen all sides.^[2]
   
4. Hammer the edge of the window to break the seal created by paint. Use a wood block to cushion the blows from the hammer and prevent making dents in the wood of the window. Be careful to hit gently so as not to break the window. Hammer the wood portion of the window and not the glass.
   
5. Push on the window with your hands. Try to loosen the window one side at a time.
   
   • Push each corner to see if there is any movement.
   • Press on the window gently to open it a little at a time.
6. Force the window up with a pry bar. Place a small block of wood on the window frame to give your pry bar more leverage. Gently force the window up with the pry bar.
   
   • Reposition the pry bar along the bottom edge of the window to lift both sides of the window.
   • Using a pry bar may damage the wood of the window or window frame, use this method very carefully as a last resort.

EditLubricating a Stuck Window

1. Rub the end of a candle along the channel where the window opens. Spread wax from the bottom of a candle into the window channel. The wax will help allow the window to slide up and down and prevent future sticking.^[3]
   
2. Remove moisture from the window frame. Wood may swell due to humidity causing windows to become stuck. Drying out the wood may help the window open more easily.^[4]
   
   • Run a hair dryer along the edges of the window frame for several minutes. After drying the wood, try opening the window.
   • Place a dehumidifier in a room with stuck windows. Lowering the humidity in the room should help reduce the swelling of the window frames.
3. Use a wood block and hammer to widen the window channel. If the window is in a wooden frame, place a wood block along the channel where the window opens and hammer it gently to depress the wood. Make the channel wider to allow the window to move more freely.
   
4. Spray a lubricant such as WD-40 along the edge of the window. Be careful when using spray lubricants as they may discolor some surfaces or damage some types of paint.
   
   • If the window opens outward on hinges, spray the hinges with the lubricant for smoother operation.
5. Open the window repeatedly. After you get the window to open one time, open and close it several times to loosen the action of the window. If it still sticks, check the frame to ensure that it isn’t warped or damaged from water.
   
   • Window frames with severe water damage may need to be replaced entirely.

EditRemoving a Window Sash

1. Remove the window stops. The stop is a small piece of trim in the window frame that holds the movable sash in place. Examine the stop to determine how it is attached to the window frame.^[5]
   
   • Use a utility knife to remove any paint that is sealing the stop to the window frame.
   • Remove any screws that are holding the sash in place.
   • Gently pry the stop out using a flathead screwdriver or paint scraper.
   • Be careful when removing the stops as they can snap easily. You may need to purchase a replacement stop to reinstall the window.
2. Unscrew any hardware on the sash. Remove the locks or latches used to close the window. Check for any additional hardware from curtains or other additions that may be attached to the window sash or frame.
   
3. Tilt the top of the bottom section of the window inward. Remove the bottom sash first by leaning it in to the inside of the house. As you lean it inward, pay attention to the ropes connecting the window to the pulley inside the frame.^[6]
   
   • Remove the rope from one side of the window by pulling the knot down and out from the side of the window sash.
   • Remove the other rope from the other side in the same manner.
4. Smooth the edges of the sash. Once the sash is removed, sand the edges to remove any paint or swollen wood causing the window to stick. Make sure to sand evenly to avoid creating additional bumps or uneven surfaces which may cause additional sticking issues.
   
5. Remove the upper sash. In double hung windows the upper sash can be removed as well. Remove any paint that is sealing the window shut to be able to move the sash.^[7]
   
   • Use a razor knife to cut around the edges of the window.
   • Slide the upper sash down to reveal the pulleys in the side of the window jamb.
   • Pull the right side of the window in to free it from the jamb.
   • Remove the rope connecting the sash to the pulley inside the window frame and jamb.
   • Pull the left side of the window out and remove the rope.
6. Sand the edges of the upper sash. Check the edges of the sash for any paint or warped wood. Sand the sash smooth to allow for better operation.
   
7. Sand the track inside the window frame. Remove any dried paint that has built up along the window sash with a scraper and sand the track smooth.
   
8. Replace the window sashes. Reverse the steps used to remove the window sashes to put them back in place.
   
   • Attach the ropes to the upper sash and slip it in place one side at a time.
   • Attach the ropes to the lower sash and place the bottom half in first. Push the upper half in place.
   • Slide the window stop back in place and attach it with screws or finish nails.

EditVideo

EditTips

• Work slowly and carefully rather than applying a lot of force quickly.
• If you can’t get a pry bar between the window bottom and the frame put two small screws in the frame near the bottom of each corner, leaving the head of the screw sticking out a bit. Use these to put the pry bar under and pry up on. This can damage the frame a bit.
• There is a special paint removal tool for windows called a window zipper, which you can buy in hardware stores. It may damage the paint on the nearby frame and windowsill but is a good option if there are multiple stuck windows.
• A cooking spatula or butter knife with a stiff metal blade can be used in place of a putty knife.

EditWarnings

• Wear work gloves and safety goggles when trying to force open windows as the glass may break.
• If a house has settled a lot, or there has been damage from a storm or other disaster the window frame may be too warped to be able to open the window safely. The whole window may need to be removed and the frame repaired or replaced.
• Getting one corner of a window too much higher than the other when forcing open a window will probably result in cracking the window glass.

EditThings You’ll Need

• Thin blade putty knife
• Thin pry bar
• Hammer
• Wood scraps
• Work gloves
• Safety goggles

EditRelated wikiHows

• Loosen Stuck Wooden Window Frames
• Unstick a Door
• Remove a Glass Stuck Inside Another Glass (Vaseline Method)
• Remove Storm Door Windows and Screens

EditSources and Citations

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Can You Match The President With His Pet?

There have been a lot of weird animals living at the White House.

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How to Make Lavender Oil

Long loved for its delightful fragrance and beauty, lavender oil may also be used to soothe injured or itchy skin, aid sleep, or simply create a pleasant massage oil.^[1] The lavender-infused oil or balm below are excellent choices for home recipes, as they are easy to make, can be used with any amount of lavender, and result in a ready-to-use product. You may choose to make a lavender essential oil instead, but be aware that the process can be difficult, and results in a much smaller quantity of highly concentrated oil that may need to be placed in another oil anyway before use.

EditSteps

EditMaking Lavender-Infused Oil

1. Cut sprigs of fresh lavender or purchase them dried. Cut off the stems of lavender along with the flowers, in 6 inch (15 centimeter) segments or longer. The leaves and new stems can be used to infuse oil as well as the flowers, although the woody, thick stems near the base should be avoided.^[2][3] You may use flower buds or strong-smelling flowers.^[4]
   
   • You may wish to pick more lavender than you think you need. Then, if the oil you create isn't strong enough to suit your preferences, you will not have to wait for a new batch of lavender to dry.
2. Let the lavender dry. If you are using fresh lavender, dry it first in shade or wrapped in a cloth, to enhance its aroma and minimize the chance of the oil becoming rancid. Tie the sprig up with rubber bands or a string and let it hang upside down in a dry, warm area. Exposing it to sunlight will dry the lavender out much faster, but could break down some of its aromatic oils. Fresh cut lavender may take two weeks to dry fully. Some infusers dry it for only one to three days, until it is withered but not crunchy; this reduces the chance of spoilage greatly, but does not eliminate it.^[5]
   
3. Lightly crush the lavender and place it in a jar. Crumble the lavender apart with clean hands, or bruise it slightly with any clean, heavy object to expose its fragrance. If using buds, open them up with a knife or fingers. Place it in a clean jar.
   
   • Wash your hands and jar first if they are dirty, but dry thoroughly before bringing them into contact with the lavender. Mixing water into the oil may interfere with the infusion.^[6]
4. Pour oil over the flowers. Pour any non-scented or lightly scented oil into the jar, fully covering the lavender but leaving 1–2 inches (1.25–2.5cm) of space at the top to allow for expansion.^[7] Almond oil, olive oil, or safflower oil are commonly used for this purpose, although you may wish to smell these first and avoid strong-smelling bottles that could overpower the lavender scent.
   
5. Soak the lavender if you have time and sunlight. Cover the jar tightly and leave the mixture to soak in a sunny location. It will most likely take at least 48 hours to achieve a noticeable scent, and more typically the oil is left out for three to six weeks. If you do not have enough sunlight or time to use this method, continue to the next step.
   
6. If you do not have time or sunlight, heat the oil carefully. A faster alternative to the sun-steeping method is to heat the oil and lavender mixture in a double boiler or crockpot for 2–5 hours, keeping it at a steady temperature between 100–120ºF (38–49ºC). This is only recommended if you have a cooking thermometer and a well-controlled, low temperature heat source, as too much heat can affect the aroma and the shelf life of the oil.^[8]
   
7. Strain the oil. Lay a piece of muslin or cheesecloth over a bowl and pour the oil and herb mix over it. Discard the flowers and other lavender pieces in the compost or garden.
   
8. Repeat the process if you wish to make the oil stronger. The same oil can be poured back into the jar and have a new batch of dried lavender placed in it. As described above, leave it out in a sunny location, or heat it at low temperatures, to create a stronger infusion. This can be repeated as many as eight times if you want a powerful oil.^[9]
   
9. Add a few drops of vitamin E (optional). Vitamin E can be added at the end of the infusion to increase the shelf life of the oil. This is recommended if you do not have a cool, dark place to store the oil, or if the oil you used is somewhat old or has a short shelf life. Stir in a few drops of vitamin E oil, or cut open a vitamin E gel capsule and pour in the contents.
   
10. Store your oil in a dark bottle or jar. Gather up the muslin and squeeze the material to extract as much as you can over a bowl or measuring cup. Transfer this to a bottle or jar made from dark glass or opaque plastic to prevent overlong exposure to light from breaking the aroma down. The shelf life for lavender infused oil depends on the type and freshness of oil used, but can typically last for months if kept in a dry, dark location.
    

EditCreating Lavender Balm or Salve

1. Follow the instructions for creating an infused oil first. This method turns a lavender-infused oil into a salve that can be rubbed onto your skin to lessen inflammation and pain.^[10] First, you'll need to create the lavender-infused oil as described in another section, or purchase some from a herbalist store.
   
2. Shave beeswax using a knife or cheese grater. You may wish to use a cheap, extra grater rather than one you use regularly, because the wax may be difficult to clean off. Measure the beeswax before you shave it into fragments; you will need approximately 1 part beeswax to 8 parts oil. Use more beeswax for a harder balm, and less for a softer salve.^[11]
   
   • If your beeswax was sold by weight, you can use these approximate weight to volume conversions: 1 ounce of beeswax = 1 fluid ounce = 1/8 cup = 28 grams.^[12]
3. Heat the beeswax and oil over low heat. Place the beeswax fragments in a pan. Pour the lavender-infused oil over it. Heat over low heat until they have melted together. It may take 15 minutes or more for all the beeswax fragments to melt. Stir occasionally using a wooden spoon or other heat-safe utensil, preferably one you don't mind damaging if wax ends up stuck to it permanently.
   
4. Pour the mixture into containers. Pour the melted balm into glass or tin containers, making sure they are clean and dry first. Seal with an airtight lid.
   
5. Harden the mixture in a cool location. After 10 or 15 minutes in the refrigerator, or 30 minutes in a cool room or cellar, check on the balm or salve to see how hard it is. If it is still liquid, or too hard to scoop up with your fingers, you may need to melt it again. Add more beeswax to make it harder, or more oil to make it softer.
   
6. Clean your pot and stirring utensil. Boil hot, soapy water in your pot once it's been emptied of balm, then turn off the heat. Let it cool for a couple minutes, then put on rubber gloves so you can scrub the wax from the sides while the water is still quite hot. Place the stirring utensil in the water only after the water is done boiling to avoid damaging it. Scrub the utensil and pot with a hard sponge or scrubbing brush.
   

EditVideo

EditTips

• You can mix lavender with other plants such as witch hazel, peppermint, or lemon/orange peel.
• Creating a lavender essential oil, which contains only the aromatics of the plant rather than a base oil, is most commonly done with the steam-
• You may wish to put a layer of wax paper between the jar and the jar lid before you screw them together, to prevent the rubber or other materials on the lid from affecting the scent of the oil.^[13]

EditWarnings

• Do not leave wax or oil unattended on the stovetop. It may smoke or catch fire if the temperature gets too high.

EditThings You'll Need

Infused oil:

• Lavender buds, flowers, or leaves (or all three)
• A wide-necked jar with tight-fitting lid
• Any oil without a strong scent (enough oil to cover the lavender)
• Sunlight or double boiler or crockpot
• Bowl
• Muslin or cheesecloth
• Dark glass bottle with tight-fitting lid or stopper

Balm:

• Infused oil
• Beeswax
• Pot or pan
• Stirring utensil
• Jars or tin containers with tight lids

EditRelated wikiHows

• Make Perfume With Essential Oils
• Buy Essential Oils
• Erase Anxiety Naturally with Herbs
• Store Essential Oils
• Dry Lavender
• Make a Lavender Bag
• Make Lavender Bath Sachets
• Use a Lavender Sachet
• Make Lavender Talc
• Make Lavender Linen Water

EditSources and Citations

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